किताब बोकी
भैंसीको ढाडमाथि
बालबालिका
पटुकीभरी
तिम्रो मायाको चिनो
धोका रहेछ
कुभलो भयो
देश र जनताको
फोहोरी खेल
सुकुटीजस्तो
पातलो जीउडाल
'फेस अफ द डे'
नेतालाई ताली
धेरै भो अब चाहीं
जुत्ताको माला
पवित्र पानी
बागमति होइन
ढलको निद
बत्ति बलेछ
घरको छानामािथ
भित्र अँध्यारो
सपनाहरु धेरै छन्
" दुःखदायी क्षण पनि रमाइलै हुन्छ मन परेको मान्छेसँग रहँदा ।
अझ खुसीका क्षणहरु बढी सार्थक हुन्छन् । "
दिनहुँको पढाई वा भनौं केही दिनअघि देखिको किताबी रटानबाट छुटकारा पाएपछि दिमाग केही ठन्डा भएको छ । ब्लगमा नयाँ कुरा केही राख्न नभ्याएको पनि करिब १ महिना भइसकेछ । त्यसमा पनि असाइन्टेन्ट पोष्ट गर्नुबाहेक सिर्जनात्मक लेखन केही राख्न भ्याइएन । धेरै दिनपछि आफ्नै बारे सोच्ने फुस्रद मिलेको हुँदा आज केही शब्द लेख्न मन लाग्दैछ ।
काठमाडौं विश्वविद्यालयमा व्याचलस्र जोइन गरेको पनि दुई बर्ष बितिसकेछ । हिजो जस्तो लाग्छ साथीहरुबीच पहिलो पटक चिनजान गरेको । आज सम्झँदा मेरो मानसपटलमा धेरै क्षणहरु उर्लेर आउँछन् साउने भेलझैं । नराम्रा र दुःखदायी क्षण त खासै केही भोग्नुपरेन । रमाइलो गरेको अझ भनौं नयाँ कुरा सिक्ने र व्यवहारिक ज्ञान हासिल गर्ने क्रममा साथीहरुसँग बिताएका पल अहिले भर्खरै जस्तो लाग्छ । एमएसजीमा आवद्ध भएर गरेका सामूहिक कामहरुको सम्झना आइरहन्छ र अझै राम्रो र प्रभावकारी रुपमा अगाडि बढ्ने उत्साहले मन भरिन्छ ।
यसपालिको खेलकुद सप्ताह पनि सम्झनयोग्य लाग्यो । यात्रा अझै सकिएको छैन । स्नातक तहको मध्यम विन्दूमा आइपुगेर आफैंलाई नियाल्दा अलिकति बैंस आएजस्तो, अलिकति परिपक्व भएजस्तो ,अनि अलिकति चाचल मन भएजस्तो लाग्छ । सपनाहरु धेरै छन् तर उही छन् । उत्साह थपिएको छ । आत्मविश्वास अलि बढेको छ । अब क्षमता अभिबृद्धि र सीप बढाउने कार्यतर्फ मन हौसिएको छ । सिक्ने, विक्ने र टिक्ने ३ चरणको जीवन-यात्रामा म अझै प्रथम श्रेणीमै राख्छु आफूलाई ।
जीवनका रमाइला क्षणसँग प्राय प्रेम प्रसंग नै जोडिने गर्छन् । सायद प्रेमले मानिसलाई एक प्रकारको आनन्द दिन्छ, आफूलाई सुरक्षित भएको महसुस गराउँछ, अलिकति अरुप्रतिको दायित्वबोध गराउँछ, अलिकति अरुलाई पनि आफ्नोबारे सोच्न बाध्य गराउँछ अनि थोरै इश्र्यालु बनाउँछ, थोरै त्यागी पनि बनाउँछ । दुःखदायी क्षण पनि रमाइलै हुन्छ मन परेको मान्छेसँग रहँदा । अझ खुसीका क्षणहरु बढी सार्थक हुन्छन् । हा हा । सायद परीक्षामा पेमको गुणगान गाउने प्रश्न सोधिएको भए म पनि आफ्नोबारे व्यक्त गर्न केही पटक कापी थप्ने थिएँ होला । अनि बीचमा कतै आफैंलाई हराउने थिएँ होला । कति आफूलाई छटपटाइरहेको पाउँने थिएँ होला । कति शब्दमा चिच्याउने थिएँ होला । कहिले खुसीले । कहिले दुःखले । यस्तै यस्तै आफैंलाई व्यक्त गर्ने थिएँ होला । तर ब्लगमा यी सबै व्यक्त गरिरहँदा आफ्नैबारे महाभारत बुनेजस्तो होला । छोटो लेख्छु भन्दाभन्दै आफैंलाई पढ्दा पट्यारलाग्दो होला । त्यसैले आजलाई यहीं बिट मार्नु उचित देख्छु । यहाँसम्मको साथका लागि तपाईंलाई धेरै धन्यवाद । हाम्रो भेट नयाँ पोष्टहरुमा पक्कै हुनेछ ।
Sex Appeal: an effective tool for Advertising
Introduction
Advertising, the business of drawing public attention to goods and services (elook.org), in today's competitive market, is often assisted by sex appeal. Likewise, an attribute of sex in advertising is that imagery used typically may have no connection to the product being advertised. However, the purpose of such imageries is to solely drag the attention of the potential customer or user. Sex appeal in advertising is often considered as one of the effective tools for attracting consumers' attention and has become more and more important to some advertisers for the same reason.
Discussion
From different studies on the history of advertising it is found that Sex has been employed in attracting consumers since the beginning of advertising. At the beginning, wood carvings and illustrations of attractive women (often unclothed from the waist up) adorned posters, signs, and ads for saloons, tonics, and tobacco. In several notable cases, sex in advertising has been claimed as the reason for increased consumer interest and sales. Even more at present context, sex appeal in advertising builds up the argument that people are curious about sexuality. This credence in marketing opines that sexuality sells products.
Rebecca Howard in her article “Sex in Advertising: Does it sell? (Howard)” draws different opinions of writers that the sensuality and imagery portrayed through the ad should be relevant to the message it carries as well as the nature of the product. According to Donna Rouner, a Colorado State University associate professor of Journalism and Technical Communication, the success of advertising that uses sexual imagery often depends on the product being sold. “Research has shown that people are pretty turned off by sex in ads if neither the product nor the lifestyle (being portrayed) is relevant to nudity or sex,” Rouner says. “Where sex works for people generally is when the product itself has to do with sex or intimacy or nudity" (Rouner).
Sex sells. These days advertising and sex have been tied together to large extent. The use of sexually suggestive images to sell just about everything really emphasizes the point that sex is a merchandisers' best friend (laimisk, 2010). In different newspaper, television as well as websites we find many advertisement of such kinds. For instances let's go through some advertisements taken randomly from different sources:
1. LavAzza Italian coffee ad: Spicy. Hot. And not half as likely to cause the kind of reaction that the ad above might receive. Pretty interesting to consider when one gets down to it. What about this ad for an Italian coffee company? It makes everyone think of sex, doesn't it?
2. Spic and Spank – A company in Germany sells their household appliances, including vacuums, using images of women in fishnets and men tied up. The ad is more successful in attracting people's attention. However, it doesn't effectively connect the message with the product. Because one can't even notice the vacuum cleaner in the bottom left which in fact requires a careful look or else he/she may miss the entire point of the ad.
3. Renova Toilet Paper: What about this print ad for Renova, a toilet paper brand from Spain? What's sexy about toilet paper?
4. Che, men's magazine: This suggestive ad campaign was used in Belgium to promote a new men's magazine, Che. It suggests that for a men's magazine, using sex to sell is an obvious marketing choice.
5. iPOd: This is as ad for an electronic product. The imagery used here highly suggests for sex appeal. Since, the image has creatively taken one of the best selling electronics products in the world it can be taken as an effective ad.
6. Dolce & Gabbana: The advertisement for Dolce & Gabbana's Spring Summer 2007 collection featured a bare-chested man holding down a woman by her wrists while other men look casually on. This ad was criticized by the media watchdogs and Spanish authorities.
7. Yeti Carpet: This advertisement (hoarding board) was found in Kathmandu. Though it emphasizes less on nudity it is appealing and connects the message carried by it with the product being advertized.
8. Lowenbrau: (centre) this advertisement taken from a hoarding board at Koteswor, Kathmandu has a nude (from waist up) women sleeping at the focus. It has used sex appeal as a tool for advertising.
Now let us compare above advertisements with four different bases: nudity, creativity, message carried and degree of sex appeal.
• In first case, the ad has a nude man and a nude woman very closely attached to each other. But more creativity is used in hiding their sexual organs and that draws people's attention towards coffee beans when they imagine more of the image. It provides a message that this coffee can generate more heat when one drinks. Here the degree of sex appeal used is high compared to other ads.
• In second case, the ad has a nude man and bare legs of a woman. Since the image too suggests total nudity, it is considered successful in drawing people's attention. Also, it has higher degree of appeal. But the message carried is very hard to retrieve and doesn't directly connect with the product being advertized. The product, vacuum cleaner is placed at the side which viewers don't take care of.
• Likewise, in third case, the ad uses nudity which doesn't match much with the message carried and the nature of product being advertized. However, more than being appealing it catches the attention of people at first sight. There is very less creativity used. Thus, this ad doesn't provide a satisfying answer to what has a toilet paper brand to do with sex. The intended meaning "luxury" doesn't sufficiently connect with sex appeal here.
• Moreover, Che, a man's magazine has used a poster that has tried to generate sex appeal and in fact seems successful in attracting men too. This has used more creativity. The poster fits to the waist down part of a female (receptionist or shopkeeper). The message carried by it is closely associated to the nature of the product. The ad seems simple and effective.
• Fifth, this ad is more effective and appealing. Though there is nudity, it is symbolic. The imagery has used more creativity and thus associates the product with the sex appeal and makes the intended message more meaningful.
• Next, the ad has used higher degree of sex appeal. Due to nudity and appealing imagery it seems successful enough to attract consumers but the other aspects of the ad like message, nature of product and creativity seem unable to connect with each other. The ad advocates more for brand recognition rather than the product being advertized.
• Seventh, this ad too seems appealing and effective in attracting customers. The product and imagery are interconnected with the message intended by the ad. Though it has used less nudity, it is an effective ad.
• Finally, this ad is appealing too. It catches sufficient attention of the passers by because it has an image of nude woman sleeping with her half back portion shown. The message written in it tries to connect with the nature of product. But less creativity can be found here.
From above illustrations we can come to the point that sex appeal is first step to attract the attention of people whereas the degree of creativity and symbolic meaning are the aspects which encourage probable customers to buy the product.
In our daily lives, we are surrounded by many such advertisements which desperately compete for our attention. “Everywhere we look, we find ourselves inevitably drawn to images of insufficiently clad attractive men and women that are supposed to somehow inspire us to purchase products they endorse. Sure, this attention-getting strategy is popular” But, is it effective? Obviously, sex appeal can increase the effectiveness of an ad or commercial because it attracts the customer's attention. It is the nature of every creature and moreover, in case of human beings, everyone is, to some extent, curious about sex. A nude female body on a poster is more likely to draw a guy's attention than a kitten or a puppy, regardless of how cute they may be. Even women are drawn attention by it, perhaps with the desire of having elegant look.
Sex supposedly sells, and no matter what commercial product one is looking for, there is no shortage of marketing campaigns aiming to convince one of the special sex appeal that appears with the "pleasure" of housekeeping he/she may enjoy from using a particular brand of vacuum, with driving a particular brand of automobile, and the erotic experience associated with wiping one’s behind with a particular brand of toilet paper (Jimz N' Floz). Apparently there is no true limit to the type of commercial product that can be tied to some unrelated sexual image.
"Does sex sell?" Actually, sex does not sell, but sexiness does (Cebrzynski, 2000, p. 14). Using sex appeals in advertising is a good way to target certain market segments but not all. What is identified as sexual appeals in advertising? Where and when should sex be used in advertising? Does the use of sexual appeals lead to an advantage for brand remembrance?
There are several different distinctions as to what is being categorized as sex appeal. A study conducted by (Reichert, T., Heckler, S. E. and Jackson, S., 2001) revealed four characteristics of sexy ads: (p.267).
1. Physical features of models,
2. Behavior/movement,
3. Intimacy between models,
4. Contextual features such as camera effects
Ramirez and Reichert (2000) sought to find what people consider sexy in advertising. The most common referent was physical features (66%), followed by a model's movements and verbal and nonverbal communication (39%), contextual features (26%), and proxemics.(15%) (p.269). They made an important note that what people referred to as sexy differed gender to gender. The study showed that females responded more to context than males did at 35% to 20%. It also showed that 28% of the females responded to proxemics or references to physical distance or relative interaction between models compared to 6% of the males (p.269).
"Advertising research reveals that sexual appeals are attention getting, arousing, affect-inducing, and memorable" (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 14). But, although studies have demonstrated that sexual appeals attract attention to the ad, they do so typically without a corresponding advantage for brand information processing. Although using sexual appeals in brand advertisements has not proven to be as effective as needed, using them in social marketing may be beneficial. "From a social marketing perspective, sexual appeals may be beneficial for the simple reason that they are attention-getting and potentially motivating desirable message characteristics in a saturated media environment" (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 18).
From above study, we can come across the points that an advertiser may take into consideration the following points before using sex appeal as a tool in advertising:
• Adequate research should be made on consumer's interest, market's demand and the product before making the advertisements.
• Appropriate and attractive models (male/female) should be chosen depending upon the target audience.
• Study the cultural aspect of the targeted market or consumers for the effectiveness of the Ad.
Conclusion
It is the task of advertisement to ensure that the product or service reaches to the level of consumers' conscience (Shrestha). Sex appeal in this regard appears to be one of strong tools of advertisers; no matter either it is ethical or unethical. However, the brand recognition or the consumers' perception upon the product being advertized is largely shaped by the commercials displayed through such advertisements.
Sex appeal doesn't always necessitate vulgarity or nudity, it can instead, become symbolic and creative so that in most cases only the target audience can make sense out of it and thus, become attracted towards it. Like in the case of first, fourth, fifth and seventh ads (above images) sex appeal with creativity and symbols connecting the product with message conveyed persuades consumers to buy those products. In case of other ads there is more vulgarity and nudity which is more likely to generate the attention of criticizers more than of the customers. However, the universal idea that sex appeal can be used as an advertising tool rests upon the fact that everyone is curious about sex. And that nosiness toward sex drags the attention of the probable consumers.
(This post is taken from one of my assignment, thought it was done almost around a year back it have published it considering it worth sharing)
Works cited
• Fang Liu and Jianyao Li, Does Sex Sell In China?-Chinese Consumers’ Evaluations Of Sex Appeal Advertising. ANZMAC 2005 Conference: Marketing Issues in Asia. 53.
• La Tour, M. S., and Henthorne, T. L., 1994. Ethical judgments of sexual appeals in print
• Reichert, T. H. ( 2001). The effects of sexual social marketing appeals on cognitive processing and persuasion. Journal of Advertising , 30(1), 13-27.
• Reichert, T., Heckler, S. E. and Jackson, S. (2001). The effects of sexual social marketing appeals on cognitive processing and persuasion. Journal of Advertising. , 30(1), 13-27.
• goliath. (n.d.). Retrieved 04 23, 2010, from goliath.ecnext.com: http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0198-415990/Ethics-in-advertising-sex-sells.html
• Howard, R. (n.d.). college avenue. Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from http://www.collegeavenuemag.com/features/hot-button/sex-in-advertising-does-it-sell/
• laimisk. (2010, 04 21). The sex raeally sells. Retrieved 04 22, 2010, from laimisk: http://en.kllproject.lv/2010/04/21/the-sex-really-sells/
• Rouner, D. (n.d.). Scribd. Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/27015053/College-Avenue-Magazine-Volume-5-Issue-2
• Shrestha, S. (n.d.). Advertising Association of Nepal . Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from adnepal.org.np: http://www.adnepal.org.np/document/content/Sex%20appeal%20in%20ad.pdf
• Elook (n.d.). Retrieved 04 23, 2010, from elook.org: http://www.elook.org/dictionary/advertising.html
Photos taken from:
• Lavazza: Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from kiotay08.files.wordpress.com: http://kiotay08.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/italain-coffee-ad.jpg
• Spic and Spank: Jimz N' Floz. (n.d.). Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from http://www.jimdeadman.com/?p=1284&cpage=1
• Renova Toilet Paper: (n.d.). Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from adland.tv: http://adland.tv/ooh/making-toilet-paper-ads-sexy
• Che, men's magazine and iPod (n.d.). Retrieved 04 19, 2010, from inventorspot.com: http://inventorspot.com/articles/ads_prove_sex_sells_5576?page=2
• Dolce & Gabbana: (n.d.). Retrieved 04 19, 2010, from frillr.com,2010
http://frillr.com,2010
• Yeti Carpet: taken on 04 19, 2010, from a hoarding board in Dillibazar, Kathmandu.
• Lowenbrau: taken on 04 19, 2010, from a hoarding board in Koteswor, Kathmandu.
Advertising, the business of drawing public attention to goods and services (elook.org), in today's competitive market, is often assisted by sex appeal. Likewise, an attribute of sex in advertising is that imagery used typically may have no connection to the product being advertised. However, the purpose of such imageries is to solely drag the attention of the potential customer or user. Sex appeal in advertising is often considered as one of the effective tools for attracting consumers' attention and has become more and more important to some advertisers for the same reason.
Discussion
From different studies on the history of advertising it is found that Sex has been employed in attracting consumers since the beginning of advertising. At the beginning, wood carvings and illustrations of attractive women (often unclothed from the waist up) adorned posters, signs, and ads for saloons, tonics, and tobacco. In several notable cases, sex in advertising has been claimed as the reason for increased consumer interest and sales. Even more at present context, sex appeal in advertising builds up the argument that people are curious about sexuality. This credence in marketing opines that sexuality sells products.
Rebecca Howard in her article “Sex in Advertising: Does it sell? (Howard)” draws different opinions of writers that the sensuality and imagery portrayed through the ad should be relevant to the message it carries as well as the nature of the product. According to Donna Rouner, a Colorado State University associate professor of Journalism and Technical Communication, the success of advertising that uses sexual imagery often depends on the product being sold. “Research has shown that people are pretty turned off by sex in ads if neither the product nor the lifestyle (being portrayed) is relevant to nudity or sex,” Rouner says. “Where sex works for people generally is when the product itself has to do with sex or intimacy or nudity" (Rouner).
Sex sells. These days advertising and sex have been tied together to large extent. The use of sexually suggestive images to sell just about everything really emphasizes the point that sex is a merchandisers' best friend (laimisk, 2010). In different newspaper, television as well as websites we find many advertisement of such kinds. For instances let's go through some advertisements taken randomly from different sources:
1. LavAzza Italian coffee ad: Spicy. Hot. And not half as likely to cause the kind of reaction that the ad above might receive. Pretty interesting to consider when one gets down to it. What about this ad for an Italian coffee company? It makes everyone think of sex, doesn't it?
2. Spic and Spank – A company in Germany sells their household appliances, including vacuums, using images of women in fishnets and men tied up. The ad is more successful in attracting people's attention. However, it doesn't effectively connect the message with the product. Because one can't even notice the vacuum cleaner in the bottom left which in fact requires a careful look or else he/she may miss the entire point of the ad.
3. Renova Toilet Paper: What about this print ad for Renova, a toilet paper brand from Spain? What's sexy about toilet paper?
4. Che, men's magazine: This suggestive ad campaign was used in Belgium to promote a new men's magazine, Che. It suggests that for a men's magazine, using sex to sell is an obvious marketing choice.
5. iPOd: This is as ad for an electronic product. The imagery used here highly suggests for sex appeal. Since, the image has creatively taken one of the best selling electronics products in the world it can be taken as an effective ad.
6. Dolce & Gabbana: The advertisement for Dolce & Gabbana's Spring Summer 2007 collection featured a bare-chested man holding down a woman by her wrists while other men look casually on. This ad was criticized by the media watchdogs and Spanish authorities.
7. Yeti Carpet: This advertisement (hoarding board) was found in Kathmandu. Though it emphasizes less on nudity it is appealing and connects the message carried by it with the product being advertized.
8. Lowenbrau: (centre) this advertisement taken from a hoarding board at Koteswor, Kathmandu has a nude (from waist up) women sleeping at the focus. It has used sex appeal as a tool for advertising.
Now let us compare above advertisements with four different bases: nudity, creativity, message carried and degree of sex appeal.
• In first case, the ad has a nude man and a nude woman very closely attached to each other. But more creativity is used in hiding their sexual organs and that draws people's attention towards coffee beans when they imagine more of the image. It provides a message that this coffee can generate more heat when one drinks. Here the degree of sex appeal used is high compared to other ads.
• In second case, the ad has a nude man and bare legs of a woman. Since the image too suggests total nudity, it is considered successful in drawing people's attention. Also, it has higher degree of appeal. But the message carried is very hard to retrieve and doesn't directly connect with the product being advertized. The product, vacuum cleaner is placed at the side which viewers don't take care of.
• Likewise, in third case, the ad uses nudity which doesn't match much with the message carried and the nature of product being advertized. However, more than being appealing it catches the attention of people at first sight. There is very less creativity used. Thus, this ad doesn't provide a satisfying answer to what has a toilet paper brand to do with sex. The intended meaning "luxury" doesn't sufficiently connect with sex appeal here.
• Moreover, Che, a man's magazine has used a poster that has tried to generate sex appeal and in fact seems successful in attracting men too. This has used more creativity. The poster fits to the waist down part of a female (receptionist or shopkeeper). The message carried by it is closely associated to the nature of the product. The ad seems simple and effective.
• Fifth, this ad is more effective and appealing. Though there is nudity, it is symbolic. The imagery has used more creativity and thus associates the product with the sex appeal and makes the intended message more meaningful.
• Next, the ad has used higher degree of sex appeal. Due to nudity and appealing imagery it seems successful enough to attract consumers but the other aspects of the ad like message, nature of product and creativity seem unable to connect with each other. The ad advocates more for brand recognition rather than the product being advertized.
• Seventh, this ad too seems appealing and effective in attracting customers. The product and imagery are interconnected with the message intended by the ad. Though it has used less nudity, it is an effective ad.
• Finally, this ad is appealing too. It catches sufficient attention of the passers by because it has an image of nude woman sleeping with her half back portion shown. The message written in it tries to connect with the nature of product. But less creativity can be found here.
From above illustrations we can come to the point that sex appeal is first step to attract the attention of people whereas the degree of creativity and symbolic meaning are the aspects which encourage probable customers to buy the product.
In our daily lives, we are surrounded by many such advertisements which desperately compete for our attention. “Everywhere we look, we find ourselves inevitably drawn to images of insufficiently clad attractive men and women that are supposed to somehow inspire us to purchase products they endorse. Sure, this attention-getting strategy is popular” But, is it effective? Obviously, sex appeal can increase the effectiveness of an ad or commercial because it attracts the customer's attention. It is the nature of every creature and moreover, in case of human beings, everyone is, to some extent, curious about sex. A nude female body on a poster is more likely to draw a guy's attention than a kitten or a puppy, regardless of how cute they may be. Even women are drawn attention by it, perhaps with the desire of having elegant look.
Sex supposedly sells, and no matter what commercial product one is looking for, there is no shortage of marketing campaigns aiming to convince one of the special sex appeal that appears with the "pleasure" of housekeeping he/she may enjoy from using a particular brand of vacuum, with driving a particular brand of automobile, and the erotic experience associated with wiping one’s behind with a particular brand of toilet paper (Jimz N' Floz). Apparently there is no true limit to the type of commercial product that can be tied to some unrelated sexual image.
"Does sex sell?" Actually, sex does not sell, but sexiness does (Cebrzynski, 2000, p. 14). Using sex appeals in advertising is a good way to target certain market segments but not all. What is identified as sexual appeals in advertising? Where and when should sex be used in advertising? Does the use of sexual appeals lead to an advantage for brand remembrance?
There are several different distinctions as to what is being categorized as sex appeal. A study conducted by (Reichert, T., Heckler, S. E. and Jackson, S., 2001) revealed four characteristics of sexy ads: (p.267).
1. Physical features of models,
2. Behavior/movement,
3. Intimacy between models,
4. Contextual features such as camera effects
Ramirez and Reichert (2000) sought to find what people consider sexy in advertising. The most common referent was physical features (66%), followed by a model's movements and verbal and nonverbal communication (39%), contextual features (26%), and proxemics.(15%) (p.269). They made an important note that what people referred to as sexy differed gender to gender. The study showed that females responded more to context than males did at 35% to 20%. It also showed that 28% of the females responded to proxemics or references to physical distance or relative interaction between models compared to 6% of the males (p.269).
"Advertising research reveals that sexual appeals are attention getting, arousing, affect-inducing, and memorable" (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 14). But, although studies have demonstrated that sexual appeals attract attention to the ad, they do so typically without a corresponding advantage for brand information processing. Although using sexual appeals in brand advertisements has not proven to be as effective as needed, using them in social marketing may be beneficial. "From a social marketing perspective, sexual appeals may be beneficial for the simple reason that they are attention-getting and potentially motivating desirable message characteristics in a saturated media environment" (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 18).
From above study, we can come across the points that an advertiser may take into consideration the following points before using sex appeal as a tool in advertising:
• Adequate research should be made on consumer's interest, market's demand and the product before making the advertisements.
• Appropriate and attractive models (male/female) should be chosen depending upon the target audience.
• Study the cultural aspect of the targeted market or consumers for the effectiveness of the Ad.
Conclusion
It is the task of advertisement to ensure that the product or service reaches to the level of consumers' conscience (Shrestha). Sex appeal in this regard appears to be one of strong tools of advertisers; no matter either it is ethical or unethical. However, the brand recognition or the consumers' perception upon the product being advertized is largely shaped by the commercials displayed through such advertisements.
Sex appeal doesn't always necessitate vulgarity or nudity, it can instead, become symbolic and creative so that in most cases only the target audience can make sense out of it and thus, become attracted towards it. Like in the case of first, fourth, fifth and seventh ads (above images) sex appeal with creativity and symbols connecting the product with message conveyed persuades consumers to buy those products. In case of other ads there is more vulgarity and nudity which is more likely to generate the attention of criticizers more than of the customers. However, the universal idea that sex appeal can be used as an advertising tool rests upon the fact that everyone is curious about sex. And that nosiness toward sex drags the attention of the probable consumers.
(This post is taken from one of my assignment, thought it was done almost around a year back it have published it considering it worth sharing)
Works cited
• Fang Liu and Jianyao Li, Does Sex Sell In China?-Chinese Consumers’ Evaluations Of Sex Appeal Advertising. ANZMAC 2005 Conference: Marketing Issues in Asia. 53.
• La Tour, M. S., and Henthorne, T. L., 1994. Ethical judgments of sexual appeals in print
• Reichert, T. H. ( 2001). The effects of sexual social marketing appeals on cognitive processing and persuasion. Journal of Advertising , 30(1), 13-27.
• Reichert, T., Heckler, S. E. and Jackson, S. (2001). The effects of sexual social marketing appeals on cognitive processing and persuasion. Journal of Advertising. , 30(1), 13-27.
• goliath. (n.d.). Retrieved 04 23, 2010, from goliath.ecnext.com: http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0198-415990/Ethics-in-advertising-sex-sells.html
• Howard, R. (n.d.). college avenue. Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from http://www.collegeavenuemag.com/features/hot-button/sex-in-advertising-does-it-sell/
• laimisk. (2010, 04 21). The sex raeally sells. Retrieved 04 22, 2010, from laimisk: http://en.kllproject.lv/2010/04/21/the-sex-really-sells/
• Rouner, D. (n.d.). Scribd. Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/27015053/College-Avenue-Magazine-Volume-5-Issue-2
• Shrestha, S. (n.d.). Advertising Association of Nepal . Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from adnepal.org.np: http://www.adnepal.org.np/document/content/Sex%20appeal%20in%20ad.pdf
• Elook (n.d.). Retrieved 04 23, 2010, from elook.org: http://www.elook.org/dictionary/advertising.html
Photos taken from:
• Lavazza: Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from kiotay08.files.wordpress.com: http://kiotay08.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/italain-coffee-ad.jpg
• Spic and Spank: Jimz N' Floz. (n.d.). Retrieved 04 21, 2010, from http://www.jimdeadman.com/?p=1284&cpage=1
• Renova Toilet Paper: (n.d.). Retrieved 04 20, 2010, from adland.tv: http://adland.tv/ooh/making-toilet-paper-ads-sexy
• Che, men's magazine and iPod (n.d.). Retrieved 04 19, 2010, from inventorspot.com: http://inventorspot.com/articles/ads_prove_sex_sells_5576?page=2
• Dolce & Gabbana: (n.d.). Retrieved 04 19, 2010, from frillr.com,2010
http://frillr.com,2010
• Yeti Carpet: taken on 04 19, 2010, from a hoarding board in Dillibazar, Kathmandu.
• Lowenbrau: taken on 04 19, 2010, from a hoarding board in Koteswor, Kathmandu.
रमाइलो तालुडाँडा
बिदाको दिन भएकाले केही फुस्रद मिल्यो । सधैंको पढाइ र कामले वाक्क भएकाले साथीहरुबीच 'ह्याङआउट'का लागि घुम्न जाने सल्लाह भयो । हामी धुलिखेलका विभिन्न ठाउँहरु चहार्न थाल्यौं ।
धुलिखेल नेपालकै एकमात्र ठाउँ हो जहाँबाट सबैभन्दा धेरै हिमालहरुको अवलोकन गर्न सकिन्छ । पश्चिममा अन्नपूर्ण र पूर्वमा सगरमाथासम्मका ३१ वटा मनोरम हिमाल एकै ठाउँमा बसेर अवलोकन गर्न पाउँदा पर्यटकहरु आफूलाई पनि हिमालको चुचुरोमै पुगेको महसुस गर्दछन् ।
"वाह ! सच व्युटिफुल माउन्टेन्स्"- पारिलो घामको प्रकाश उत्तरको हिमश्रंृखलामा ठोक्किँदा नेपाल घुम्न आएका केही विदेशी पर्यटकहरु धुलिखेलबाट ती दृश्यलाई क्यामारामा कैद गर्दै थिए । "काठमाडौंबाट नजिक भए पनि प्रदुषणबाट टाढा रहेछ" - काठमाडौंकी रश्मी अग्रवालले भनिन् । "चिसो र स्वच्छ भएकाले पनि धेरैजसो पर्यटकहरुले धुलिखेललाई आफ्नो गन्तव्यस्थल बनाउँछन् होला"- सँगै रहेका स्यामुएल क्षेत्रीले अनुमान गरे । नेपालको एक महत्वपूर्ण पर्यटकीय स्थल मानिने धुलिखेलमा केही समयअघि हजार-सिँडी निर्माण भएको छ । हजार सिँडी चढ्दै जाँदा केही पर गौतम बुद्धको ठूलो मूर्ति देखिन्छ । ठट्टा गर्दै नेपालगाजका अनिस रेग्मीले बुद्धको मूर्तितिर देखाए- "हेर त बुद्धले आफ्ना चेलाहरुलाई पाठ सिकाउँदै छन् ।"
हिउँदमा घमाइलो दिन भए धुलिखेल वरिपरीको रमाइलो दृश्य अवलोकन गर्न सकिन्छ । पुस माघको चिसोमा कुइराले वरिपरीका खाल्डाहरु पुर्दा भने आफू आकाशमा बादलहरुबीच हराएझैं लाग्छ । घामको प्रकाश धमिलिँदा वरिपरी कुइरोले ढाकेको हुन्छ । महाभारत र रामायणजस्ता टेलिश्रृंखलाहरुमा देवता र राक्षसहरु बादलमाथि शयर गरिरहेजस्तै । मैले पहिलोपटक 'प्लेन'मा यात्रा गर्दा यस्तै महसुस गरेको थिएँ ।
धुलिखेल शहरभन्दा करिब २ किलोमिटर उत्तर-पश्चिममा एउटा अग्लो डाँडो छ । विशेषगरी काफल ऐसेलु र लालीगुराँस वनभरी हुँदा निकै चर्चामा आउने यो ठाउँ काठमाडौं विश्वविद्यालय लगायत अन्य कलेजका विद्यार्थीहरुमाझ तालुडाँडाको नामले परिचित छ । हुन त प्राकृतिक रुपमा यो ठाउँ जति सुन्दर छ त्यति चर्चा भने यसले पाउन सकेको छैन । तर पनि विभिन्न ठाउँबाट धुलिखेल घुम्न आउनेहरुका लागि यो डाँडो एउटा रमणीय स्थल बन्न सक्छ । कारण तालुडाँडाको रुपमा परिचित भएपनि यस ठाउँबाट वरिपरीको दृश्यावोलोकन हरियाली र मनोरम पाइन्छ ।
एउटा साथीले छेउमा आएर सोध्यो "यसलाई किन तालुडाँडा भनिएको" खास उत्तर के हुनुपथ्र्यो मलाई पनि थाहा थिएन । तर डाँडाको टुप्पो पुग्नलाग्दा केही भिरालो चउर देखियो । "तालुजस्तै खाली ठाउँ भएकाले" मैले चित्तबुझ्दो उत्तर दिने प्रयास गरें । यहाँका स्थानीयबासीहरु यस ठाउँलाई तालुडाँडा भन्न रुचाउँदा रहेनछन् । कसैले गोसाइँस्थान त कसैले चण्डेश्वरी वन । जे भएपनि यूवाहरुमाझ यो ठाउँ तालुडाँडाकै नामले चिनिन्छ ।
डाँडाको टुप्पोमा एउटा टावर छ जहाँबाट उत्तरको हिमश्रंृखला प्रष्ट देखिन्छ । दक्षिणको अग्लो महाभारत पर्वत र वरिपरीका अन्य हरिया डाँडाहरु देख्दा आफू स्वर्गमा भएको महसुस जोकोहीले गर्छ । टावरमा चढेपछि स्वच्छ हावामा रमाउँदै काठमाडौंकी रमिता महर्जन भन्दै थिइन्- "अब त पटकपटक आउँछु फुस्रद मिल्नेबित्तिकै यहाँ आउने योजना बनाइहाल्छु ।" उनी पूर्वमा पाँचखाल उपत्यका र पश्चिममा काठमाडौं उपत्यकालाई समेत त्यहींबाट चियाउने प्रयास गर्दै थिइन् । टाढैबाट तालुडाँडालाई हेर्दा कहिलकाहीं यो आकाशमा झुण्डिएको जस्तो भान हुन्छ । मैलै मनमनै सोचें सायद बेबिलोनको 'हेङ्गिङ गार्डन' पनि यस्तै हुनुपर्छ ।
हराउँदैछ हरियाली
धुलिखेल वरिपरीका केही ठाउँहरुमा एग्जाभेटरले आफ्ना नङ्ग्रा फैलाइरहेको देख्दा भने हामी चिन्तित भयौं । "अब यो सुन्दरता पनि धेरै दिन नरहनेभो" छेउमा रहेका सुनिर पाण्डेले यसो भनिरहँदा मैले कवि मनप्रसाद सुब्बालाई सम्झें । केही महिनाअघि दार्जिलिङबाट काठमाडौं विश्वविद्यालय आउँदा उनले काभ्रेको अथाह सौन्दर्य देखेका थिए । विशेषगरी खेतका गरा र कान्लाले उनलाई लोभ्याएको थियो । बयेली खेल्दै गरेको हरियो बालीमै उनको मन हराएको थियो । तर उनी काभ्रेको हरियाली वातावरणप्रति चिन्तित थिए । भन्दै थिए-"यी खेतका गराहरु पनि मासिदैछन् र काभ्रेको सुन्दरता पनि बिलाउँदैछ ।"
आज धुलिखेल आसपासका क्षेत्रहरुमा यस्तै परिवर्तन आउन थालेको छ । हरिया डाँडाहरुलाई सम्याई प्लटिङ गर्ने कार्य अत्यधिक बढेको छ । प्लटिङ् कार्यका कारण आसपासका यी डाँडाहरु मासिन थालेपछि भने धुलिखेलले आफ्नो भेष बदल्दैछ । हिजोसम्म हरिया बुट्यान र घाँसले भरिएका भिराला डाँडाहरु रुखो चउर बन्न थालेका छन् । जसकारण धुलिखेलको सौन्दर्य बिस्तारै हराउँदैछ । यसतर्फ भने कसैको ध्यान जान सकेको छैन ।
स्वदेशमै फल्छ सुन
काभ्रे पाँचखालका राजन न्यौपाने करिब डेढ दशकअघि नेपाल आएका हिमाल आरोहीले कफी पिएको देख्दा 'के खाएको होला' भन्ठान्थे । अहिले उनमा कफी पिउने लत नै बसिसकेको छ । आँगनको डिलमा बसेर कफी पिउँदै उनी भन्छन्-'कफीखेतीले जीवनस्तर बढाउन थालेपछि त नेपालका पाखाबारी यसैले भरिन थालेका छन् ।'
हिमालको चिसो छल्न आरोहीहरुले झोलामा बोकेर ल्याउने गरेको त्यही कफी अहिले नेपालबाट सैयौं टन विदेश पुग्छ । भिरपाखामा कतै कतै मात्र देख्न पाइने 'रातादाने' कफीले अहिले नेपालको हिमालीदेखि पहाडी भू-भागका हजारौं हेक्टर जमिन ओगटेको छ । यति मात्र होइन केही अघिसम्म कफीको नामसम्म नसुनेका किसानहरु यति बेला त्यही कफी फलाएर बर्षेनी करोडौं रुपैयाँ आम्दानी गर्न सक्षम भइसकेका छन् ।
भिर पाखामा समेत सजिलै फलाउन सकिने नेपाली कफीको माग अहिले विदशी वजारमा निकै बढेको छ । विदशी वजारमा यसको बढ्दो मागसँगै किसानमा पनि कफी खेतीप्रति निकै उत्साह थपिएको छ । पैसा कमाउने सपना लिएर विदेशीने कतिपय नेपाली युवाहरुलाई समेत कफीखेतीले लोभ्याएको छ । काभ्रे तिमालका रविन्द्र मैनाली भन्छन् 'स्वदेशमै सुन फलाउन सकिने रहेछ विदेशमा गएर अर्काका लागि दुःख गर्नु त व्यर्थ रहेछ ।' हुन पनि कफीखेतीबाट प्रसस्त धन आर्जन गर्न थालेका यहाँका किसानहरु नेपाली कफीलाई 'पाखामा फल्ने रातो सुन' भन्दछन् ।
कफीखेतीबारे पर्याप्त ज्ञान नभएकै कारण केही अघिसम्म 'दाउरा बाल्न पनि नहुने रुख' भन्दै फडानी गरिएका कफी घारीमा अहिले भने नयाँ विरुवा हुर्केका छन् । वजारको चाँजोपाँजो नमिल्दा कफीका रुख नै फाँड्ने गुल्मी पाल्पा कास्की काभे्र लगायत स्थानका किसानलाई अहिले व्यापारीले मागेजति कफी पुर् याउन धौ-धौ परेको छ । नेपाली वजारको भन्दा विदशी वजारको बढ्दो मागका कारण व्यावसायीहरु पनि कफी किन्न किसानका घर-घरमा पुग्ने गरेका छन् । सुरुका केही वर्ष जापानमात्र निर्यात भएको नेपाली कफीको वजार अहिले अमेरिका अष्ट्रेलियाजस्ता मुलुकसम्म पनि विस्तार भइसकेको छ । राजधानीस्थित ुद अर्गानिक भिलेजुका प्रबन्ध निर्देशक समीर नेवा भन्छन् - "रासायनिक मल र विषादिको प्रयोग नगरिएकाले यहाँको कफीले विदशी वजारमा स्वतःस्फूर्त 'अर्गानिक कफी' को मान्यता समेत पाएको छ ।"
कफीको वास्तविक स्वाद थाहा पाएर पनि नेपालीले भने अहिलेसम्म शुद्ध कफी पिइरहेका छैनन् । व्यावसायीहरु भन्छन्- "यति ठूलो परिमाणमा विदेश निर्यात भएको नेपाली कफी आफ्नै देशमा भने कमैमात्र प्रयोग हुन्छ । नेपालका केही कूटनीतिक नियोग ठूला खाले होटल र केही अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय गैरसरकारी संस्थाका कार्यालयमा नेपाली कफी प्रयोग गर्ने चलन भर्खरै सुरु भएको छ ।" नाम चलेका कफीसपलगायत राजधानी र बाहिरका होटलहरुमा समेत बाहिरबाट आयातित 'नेस्कफी' कै प्रयोग हुन्छ । नेपाली कफी विदेशी मुखलाई स्वादिलो भए पनि घुलनशील नभएका कारण प्रयोगमा कमी आएको व्यावसायी फूलकुमार लामा बताउँछन् । भन्छन्- "नेपालमा टुकि्रएका वियाँको पाउडर बनाउने मेसिन नभएकाले नेस्कफी बन्ने भाग त्यत्तिकै खेर जाने गरेको छ ।"
Journalism as a Social Institution
A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. It refers to a group of social positions, connected by social relations, performing a social role. It can also be defined in a narrower sense as any institution in a society that works to socialize the groups or people in it.
The major institutions in the society include the family, education, work and economy, the political institution (or the state), religion and health care, as well as the mass media, organized sports, and the military. They all represent institutions; they are all complex structures that exist for explicit reasons. Together, institutions meet certain needs that are necessary for society to exist and proceed. Social institution has the following functions in the society.
- Socialization of new members of the society
- Production and distribution of goods and services
- Replacement of memberships
- The maintenance of stability and existence
- Providing the members with ultimate sense of purpose
Like many other social institutions, journalism is a distinctive social institution. It emerged as a set of relatively enduring organizations in 18th century Europe and North America. Through colonialism, the expansion of markets, urbanization, and democratic political developments, journalism became important around the globe. Journalism, like other institutions, has its characteristics which fulfill the features of social institutions.
- It is an established and organized system of social behavior with a recognized purpose.
- It refers to the broad systems that organize specific functions in society.
- Unlike group behavior journalism cannot be directly observed, but its impact and structure can still be seen.
· Journalism has its centrality in social processes.
· It transfers knowledge from research to the relevant social institutions, such as legislators, regulatory authorities, media organizations, journalism education and training, and the journalist them-selves.
For example best theory of media on the basis of its purpose and functions is described by social responsibility theory which emphasizes on such a journalism which can benefit the social order and its progress. Also in general, journalism has its ground in society. Without society journalism can't be imagined. The objective of journalism is to reflect the society. Furthermore, it researches for the best alternatives, prospects of development of the society. Also, journalistic behaviors are more similar to the characteristics of a social institution. Thus, associating these characteristics and functions of social institutions with the features and goals of journalism, we can come to the conclusion that it is a form of social institution.
तिम्रो निकटमा बसेझैं लाग्छ
प्रकृति तिम्रो निकटमा बसेझैं लाग्छ
जब म कुनै झरना वा खोलाको नजिकै हुन्छु
तिम्रा कन्चन सल्बलाहटहरु
मेरो कन्चटमा आएर ठोक्किँदा
तिमीसँगै आफू पनि बगिरहेझैं लाग्छ ।
तिम्रो मृदुभाषी आवाज
कानमा आई गुन्जिएझैं लाग्छ-
"यी सबै तिम्रै लागि बनेका हुन्"
यो पल तिमीलाई धन्य ठानूँझैं लाग्छ |
जब सूर्यास्त हुन्छ, प्रकृति !
म तिम्रो प्रशंसा गर्न आतुर हुन्छु
तिमी भोलि पनि सफा दिन लिएर आउनेछौ
तिमी परी भएर मलाई जिस्काउँदा
म सारा संसार भुलेर तिमीसँग रमाउने छु ।
Words/Photos: Chandiraj
जब म कुनै झरना वा खोलाको नजिकै हुन्छु
तिम्रा कन्चन सल्बलाहटहरु
मेरो कन्चटमा आएर ठोक्किँदा
तिमीसँगै आफू पनि बगिरहेझैं लाग्छ ।
तिम्रो मृदुभाषी आवाज
कानमा आई गुन्जिएझैं लाग्छ-
"यी सबै तिम्रै लागि बनेका हुन्"
यो पल तिमीलाई धन्य ठानूँझैं लाग्छ |
जब सूर्यास्त हुन्छ, प्रकृति !
म तिम्रो प्रशंसा गर्न आतुर हुन्छु
तिमी भोलि पनि सफा दिन लिएर आउनेछौ
तिमी परी भएर मलाई जिस्काउँदा
म सारा संसार भुलेर तिमीसँग रमाउने छु ।
Words/Photos: Chandiraj
वैशेषिक दर्शन र परमाणुवादको प्रागकल्पना
हिन्दू धर्मशास्त्र अनुसार प्रमुख ६ वटा दर्शनहरुमध्ये वैशेषिक दर्शन पनि एक महत्वपूर्ण वैदिक दर्शन मानिन्छ । अणुवादका प्रवर्तक कर्णाद अर्थात अक्षपादद्वारा प्रवर्तित वैशेषिक दर्शनले जीवन र जगतका बारेमा प्रस्तुत गरेको व्याख्या धेरैजसो हिन्दू धर्मवालम्वीहरुको जीवन पद्दतिमा एउटा महत्वपूर्ण नीतिशास्त्रकै रुपमा स्थापित भएको छ ।
परमाणु वा अणुवादलाई आफ्नो मूख्य विषय बनाएको यो दर्शनले मूलतः वास्तविक जीवनका उतारचढावहरुलाई बुझ्न आत्मज्ञान प्राप्ति आवश्यक हुने कुरामा जोड दिएको छ । यसले प्रत्यक्ष वा अप्रत्यक्ष रुपमा ईश्वरीय शक्तिको चर्चा गरेको पाइन्छ ।
स्कन्दपुराणका अनुसार शीवका भक्त अक्षपाद वा कर्णादद्वारा रचित वैशेषिक सुत्रको प्रशस्तपादभाष्य वा पदार्थधर्मसङ्ग्रह भन्ने प्रशस्तपादद्वारा लिखित चर्चित ग्रन्थ हालसम्म पनि उपलब्ध छ । निबन्धात्मक शैलीमा लेखिएको यो कृति बि।स।sाे पाचौं शताब्दीतिर रचिएको भए पनि वैशेषिक सुत्रको चर्चा गर्ने यस शुत्रग्रन्थको शंकर मिश्रले बनाएको शुत्रको व्याख्या सरलिकृत गरिएर लेखिएको हुनाले वर्तमान अवस्थामा पनि यो एउटा चर्चाको विषय बन्दै आएको छ । ुवैशेषिकसूत्रोपस्कारु भन्ने उक्त व्याख्या भने विक्रमको १५ औं सतकतिरको मानिन्छ । विशेषगरी यस वैशेषिक दर्शनले द्रव्यहरुमा परस्पर भेद गराउने र ुविशेषु भन्ने छुट्टै पद मान्ने हुनाले यस दर्शनलाई वैशेषिक दर्शन भनिएको हो ।
वैशेषिक दर्शनको निर्माण न्याय दर्शनभन्दा पहिले नै भएको हो । त्यसैले तर्कशास्त्रका आलोचक तथा सुधारकका रुपमा आएका कतिपय दार्शनिकहरुको न्याय दर्शन वैशेषिक दर्शनभन्दा पहिले नै निर्मित भएको हो भन्ने भनाइलाई खासै महत्व दिइँदैन । त्यसो त यो दर्शन बौद्ध तथा जैन दर्शनभन्दा पनि अघिको मानिन्छ । न्यायशास्त्रले कर्णादको पदार्थधर्मग्रन्थसंग्रहमाथि कुनै पनि प्रभाव नपारेको बरु गौतमको न्याय शुत्र तथा वात्श्यायनको भाष्य वैशेषिक मतबाट प्रशस्त मात्रामा प्रभावित भएको तथ्यले वैशेषिक दर्शनलाई अन्य दर्शनहरुमध्ये जेठो दर्शनका रुपमा स्थापित गरेको पाइँन्छ ।
हुन त वैशेषिक दर्शन अरु दर्शनहरुभन्दा जति भिन्न देखिन्छ ती दर्शनहरुबीच त्यत्तिकै समानता पनि पाइन्छ । बौद्ध दर्शनमा उल्लेख भएको ुनिर्वाणुको प्रागकल्पना प्रागकल्पनाको विकास वैशेषिक दर्शनको असत्कार्यवादको प्रागकल्पनासँग मिल्दोजुल्दो भएको कुरा पुष्टि हुन्छ । जैनहरुका ुआस्थिकायु तथा उनीहरुको परमाणुवाद प्रागकल्पना पनि वैशेषिक दर्शनमै आधारित भएको पाइन्छ । लङ्कावतारसुत्रमा पनि परमाणुवादको संकेत पाउन सकिन्छ । जैनहरुको एउटा परवर्ती ग्रन्थ ुआवश्यकु रोहगुणको वैशेषिक दर्शनको रचयिता मानिन्छ जसलाई जैन धर्मको छैठौं विभेदको धर्मगुरु मानिन्छ । यद्यपि उक्त ग्रन्थको वैशेषिक विचार सम्बन्धको आख्यान कर्णादकै योजनाको अनुकुल छ । तर यस दावीलाई वैशेषिक दर्शन जैन दर्शनको नै एउटा शाखा हो भनेर प्रमाणित गर्न ज्यादै कठीन हुन्छ । जैन र वैशेषिक दर्शन दुवैमा एउटै प्रकारको परमाणुवादको प्रागकल्पनाको चिन्तन पाइने भएकाले यी दुई दर्शनबीचको परस्पर सम्बन्धलाई वर्तमानका दार्शनिकहरुले आफू-अनुकुल नै व्याख्या गर्दै आएको पाइन्छ । किनकि यी दुवैको विचारमा मौलिक भिन्नता पाइन्छ । जनमतको अनुसार गुणको दृष्टिबाट परमाणु एक समान छ । प्रत्येक परमाणुमा रङ रस गन्ध पर्श तथा शब्दको उत्पादनको क्षमता विद्यमान रहिरहन्छ । तर पनि त्यो निशब्दः छ । वैशेषिक शब्दको मतमा गुणको दृष्टिबाट परमाणुमा भेद छ । वैशेषिकवादीहरु वायू जल पानी अग्नी र पृथ्वी यी आदिहरुको पनि परमाणुको सत्ता छ । उसको हिसाबमा १ २ ३ अथवा ४ सामान्य गुण राखिएको छ शब्दको साथ त्यसको कुनै सम्बन्ध छैन । परमाणुवादको प्रागकल्पना द्रव्यहरुमा वर्गिकरण र ज्ञानको साधनको स्वीकृति बलपूर्वक यस्ता संकेत प्रशस्तै रुपमा गरिएको देखिन्छ । वैशेषिक दर्शनका विभिन्न भाष्यहरुमा पाइने यिनै प्रमाणलाई आधार मानेर हेर्दा वैशेषिक दर्शनको रचना बुद्ध र महावीरको समय अर्थात इ।सा। पूर्वको पाचौं वा छैटौं शताब्दीतिर भएको पाइन्छ ।
वैशेषिक दर्शनमा प्रत्यक्ष र अनुमान गरी २ प्रमाण मात्रै स्वीकार गरिएको छ । यहाँ द्रव्यलाई पृथ्वी जल तेज वायू आकाश काल दिशा आत्मा मन आदिलाई द्रव्यका रुपमा स्वीकार गरिएको छ भने गन्ध रस रुप पर्श शब्द ज्ञान इत्यादिलाई गुण मानिएको छ । त्यसैगरी जातिविशेष र समवाय यी पदार्थको तत्वज्ञान भई संसारलाई दोषपूर्ण देखेर विरक्त भएपछि मनुष्य आत्मज्ञान प्राप्त गरी सुख दुःख इच्छा द्वेष आदि सबै आत्माविशेष गुणहरुको निमूल हुँदा मुक्त हुन्छ भन्ने सिद्धान्तलाई यस दर्शनले प्रतिपादन गरेको छ । वैशेषिक मतानुसार शरीर इन्द्रियहरु र भोग्य विषयहरु पृथ्वी जल तेज वायू र आकाश गरी पाँच महाभूतबाट बन्दछन् । यस दर्शनले प्रतिपादन गरेका विषयहरु वेदले जीवन र जगतका बारेमा ल्याएका कतिपय प्रमाणहरुभन्दा भिन्न देखिए पनि वा यस दर्शनले वेदलाई स्वतन्त्र रुपमा प्रमाण नमान्ने भए पनि यसलाई वेदविरोधी भने मानिदैन ।
यस दर्शनका अनुसार सबैभन्दा सुक्ष्म वस्तु परमाणु हो जुन न त उत्पादन गर्न सकिन्छ न त विनाश नै गर्न सकिन्छ । प्रत्येक परमाणुमा आफ्नो छुट्टै विशेषता हुने भएकाले यी परमाणुहरुको मिलनबाट बनेका नयाँ वस्तुहरुमा पनि भिन्नता पाइन्छ । तिनै परमाणुहरुको विशेषताबाट यी वस्तुहरुको विशेषता निर्धारण हुन्छ । यस दर्शनले प्रत्यक्ष र अनुमान गरी दुईवटा माध्यमबाट सर्वमान्य ज्ञान हासिल गर्ने कुरालाई मुख्य आधार बनाएको छ जुन आधुनिक समयमा पनि सान्दर्भिक हुन आउँछ । विज्ञान र भौतिक संसारलाई मान्यता दिनेहरुका लागि ुप्रत्यक्षु माध्यम प्रभावकारी देखिन्छ भने ुअनुमानुले अदृश्य वा भावनात्मक संसारका मूल्य मान्यताहरुलाई सत्य प्रमाणित गर्न सही कारणको खोजी गर्दछ । यी दुवै माध्यमबाट मानिसले आफ्नो आध्यात्मिक चिन्तनलाई अङ्गाल्दै भौतिक संसारमा जीवन गुजार्न सक्षम हुन्छ भन्ने प्रमाणलाई यस दर्शनले व्याख्या गरेको छ । यसरी हेर्दा वैशेषिक दर्शनले गरेको परमाणुवादको प्रागकल्पनाले वैज्ञानिक धरातललाई समेत एउटा बलियो आधारस्तम्भ निर्माण गरिदिएको छ । तसर्थ यसले आध्यामिक तथा भौतिक रुपमा मानव समाजलाई विकास सभ्यताको मार्गतर्फ उन्मुख गराएको पाइन्छ ।
नेपाली काव्यानुवादलाई एउटा रोचक उपहारः पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका कविता
समीक्षकः चण्डिराज दाहाल
कृतिको नामः पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका कविता
अनुवादकः प्रा.डा. जङ्गब चौहान
प्रकाशकः भृकुटी एकेडेमिक पब्लिकेशन्स् काठमाडौं २०६६
पृष्ठः ७६
मूल्यः रु १९५/-
कृतिको नामः पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका कविता
अनुवादकः प्रा.डा. जङ्गब चौहान
प्रकाशकः भृकुटी एकेडेमिक पब्लिकेशन्स् काठमाडौं २०६६
पृष्ठः ७६
मूल्यः रु १९५/-
साहित्य एउटा अनुपम सुन्दरता हो । यसले जोसुकैलाई मोहित पार्दछ । जीवन र जगतका बारेमा मनोरम भावना वा कल्पनाशक्ति प्रदान गरी पाठकलाई आफूप्रति आकर्षित गर्ने हुनाले साहित्यले ज्ञानको क्षितिजलाई समेत फराकिलो पार्दछ । मानव मनका संवेदनाहरुलाई संगालेर धार्मिक सीमा पार गरेको हुन्छ भौगोलिक पर्खालहरुलाई नाघेको हुन्छ । यस्ता अनेक बाधा अड्चनहरुलाई पन्छाउँदै पाठकसँगको सुमधुर सम्बन्ध स्थापित गर्न साहित्यमा अनुवाद एक अत्यावश्यक विधा मानिन्छ । अनुवादबाटै साहित्य एक भाषाबाट अर्को हुँदै विश्वभर फैलिन्छ । नेपाली साहित्यमा पनि अनुदित कृतिहरुले राम्रो स्थान जमाउन थालेका छन् । विशेषगरी अङ्ग्रेजी साहित्यलाई नेपालीमा अनुवाद गर्ने क्रम बढेको छ भने गि्रसेली प्रुान्सेली रुसी लगायतका साहित्य एकबाट अर्को हुँदै नेपाली भाषासम्म आइपुगेका छन् । त्यसो त लियो टाल्स्टाय आन्तोन चेकोभ जस्ता विश्वप्रसिद्ध रुसी साहित्यकारका कृतिहरु नेपालीमा अनुदित हुँदै आएका छन् । सोही क्रममा रुसी साहित्यको अतुलनीय स्रष्टाद्वय अलेक्सान्द्र पुश्किन र फ्योदर त्युत्चेभका उत्कृष्ट कविताहरुको अनुदित संग्रह नेपाली पाठकसामू उपस्थित भएको छ । "पुस्किन र त्युत्चेभका कविता" नामक उक्त कृतिका माध्यमबाट काव्यानुवादको श्रीबृद्धि गर्दै नेपाली साहित्यलाई एउटा रोचक उपहार प्रदान गरेका छन् प्रा.डा.जङ्गब चौहानले ।
पुस्तकको बाहिरी आवरण हेर्दा कविद्वयका स्केचहरु निलो रङ्ग संयोजनको कडा खोलमा प्रतिबिम्वित छन् । यसै बर्ष पहिलो संस्करण अन्तर्गत भृकुटी एकेडेमिक पब्लिकेसन्स् काठमाडौंबाट एक हजारप्रति छापिएको यो पुस्तक ८२ पृष्ठको छ । आकारमा सानो भएपनि यसले साहित्यानुरागीहरुको मन जित्ने प्रायः निश्चित छ । यस कृतिले रुसी कविद्वय अलेक्सान्द्र पुश्किनका १३ वटा र फ्योदर त्युत्चेभका १२ वटा गरी २५ वटा संकलित कविताहरु समेटेको छ । प्रत्येक कविताका मूलपाठ समेत यहाँ समावेश गरिएको छ । कत्यसैगरी परिशिष्टमा विभिन्न सन्दभमा पुश्किनका बारेमा लेखिएका लेख-रचनाहरु वा संस्मरणहरु पनि प्रकाशित छन् । साथमा नेपाल-रुस साहित्य समाजका अध्यक्ष तेजेश्वरबाबु ग्वंगःद्वारा प्रस्तुत पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका कवितामा विचरणु समेत उक्त पुस्तकमा संलग्न गरिएको छ ।
रुसी भाषा र साहित्यको जग ठड्याउने मात्र नभई त्यसलाई उत्कृष्ट साहित्यिक रुप दिने कार्यमा समेत महत्वपूर्ण योगदान पुर् याउने पुश्किनले काव्य संसारमा दिएको विशिष्ट योगदानलाई यस पुस्तकले केही हदसम्म चर्चा गर्ने जमर्को गरेको छ । उनका कवितामा एकातिर तात्कालीन राजनीतिक-सामाजिक अवस्थाप्रतिको विद्रोह पाइन्छ भने अर्कातिर प्राकृतिक सुन्दरता र स्वयं आफ्नै जीवनमा अनुभव गरेका प्रेमप्रसङ्गहरु बडो सुरम्यताका साथ प्रस्तुत गरिएको पाइन्छ । पुश्किनका कविताहरु प्राय तात्कालीन जारशाही निरङ्कुशताबिरोधी पाइन्छन् । त्यसैगरी रुसका अर्का शीर्षस्थ बौद्धिक व्यक्तित्वका रुपमा परिचित कवि फ्योदर त्युत्चेभका कविता पनि निकै उत्कृष्ट मानिन्छन् । परराष्ट्र सेवामा संलग्न भएका कारण उनका रचनाहरु पाठक र समालोचकहरुका दृष्टिमा नपरेका कारण पहिले नै उनले जति चर्चा पाउनुपर्ने थियो त्यति पाएनन् । तर उनका कविता पाएपछि कवि पुश्किनसमेत चकित बनेका थिए । असफल प्रेमका अनुभूतिहरु संगाल्दै कविले आफ्ना कवितामा प्रेमप्रतिको निरर्थकताबोध गरेका छन् भने प्रकृतिप्रतिको सौन्दर्य चेतनालाई कलात्मक ढंगमा चित्रण गरेका छन् । "सोचेजस्तो होइन" शीर्षकको कवितामा उनी लेख्छन्ः
तिमीले सोचेजस्तो होइन प्रकृतिः
अन्धो र हृदयहीन
ऊभित्र पनि मन छ स्वतन्त्रता छ
ऊभित्र पनि माया छ बोली छ…।
अनुवादका दृष्टिले यो पुस्तक नेपाली साहित्यमा एउटा उत्कृष्ट नमुना बनेको छ भन्दा अत्युक्ति नहोला । अनुवाद त्यसमा पनि विशेषगरी काव्यानुवाद आफैंमा एउटा जटिल कार्य मानिन्छ । मूल स्रष्टाले अनुभव गरेका सिर्जनक्षणको गहिराइसम्म अनुवादकले पुग्नैपर्ने भएकाले काव्यानुवाद एउटा मौलिक सिर्जना हुनसक्छ । त्यसो त अनुवाद सिद्धान्तसम्बन्धी विचारहरु अझै पनि विरोधाभाषपूर्ण छन् । शब्दको पछि लाग्दा अर्थको प्राण जाने हुनाले शब्दको होइन त्यसको आशय वा उद्देश्यको पछि लाग्नु उचित हुन्छ भन्ने मान्यता सर्वव्यापी भए पनि एउटा व्यक्तिलाई उसके भेषभूषा र संस्कृतिमा बुझ्न शब्दको पनि ठूलो भूमिका हुन्छ । जर्मन दार्शनिक स्लेसरमेकरले भनेका छन् अनुवाद गर्दा शब्दश गर्न त्यसो गर्दा मात्र यो विदेशीजस्तो लाग्दछ । अन्य भाषा र संस्कृतिको स्वाद त्यहाँ पाइनाले त्यसबाट धेरै भौगोलिक र साँस्कृतिक ज्ञान प्राप्त हुन जान्छ । अनुवादक प्रा. चौहानले यस कृतिमा अन्तरभाषिक शब्द शैली र भावको यथोचित व्यवस्थापनमा पर्याप्त ध्यान दिएका छन् । यस पुस्तकमा अनुवादकको दुवै भाषामाथिको दक्षता साँस्कृतिक परिवशको व्यक्तिगत अनुभव ज्ञान र अन्तर्दृष्टिसमेत झल्किएको छ ।
अनुवाद सिद्धान्तका बारेमा चर्चा गर्दै समालोचक डा. गोविन्द भट्टराईले लेखेका छन् - "अर्कालाई बुझ्न खोज्नु डरलाग्दो कुरा हो । आफूलाई बुझ्न दिनु पनि झन् डरलाग्दो । अनुवादक पनि त्यस्तै व्यक्ति हो जसले अर्कालाई बुझ्न खोज्छ कि आपुूलाई बुझाउन ।" यसअर्थमा डा. चौहानले गरेको यो प्रयास आफैंमा कम चुनौतिपूर्ण छैन । तर नेपाली पाठकलाई रुसी साहित्यको गहिराइसम्म पुर् याउन र रुसी साहित्यको क्षितिजलाई विश्वभर फैल्याउन यो अनुवाद कार्य सार्थक र अर्थपूर्ण बनेको छ । कविद्वारा व्यक्त भाव र चेनतालाई अनुवादकले यहाँ पुर्नव्याख्या गरेका छन् पुर्ननिर्माण वा एक विशाल विनिर्माण प्रकृयाद्वारा उनले ती कविताहरुलाई जीवन्तता प्रदान गरेका छन् ।
ज्ञानको खोजी र साहित्यको आस्वादनले भौगोलिक धार्मिक वा राजनीतिक सीमालाई नाघेको हुन्छ । देश काल र परिस्थितिबारे बुझ्न मात्र होइन भावनाको गहिराइसम्म डुबुल्की मारी कल्पनाको संसारमा रमाउनसमेत यो कृतिले पाठकलाई एउटा सुनौलो अवसर दिएको छ । यसले पाठकलाई आफ्नो समाज र सँस्कृतिभन्दा टाढा रहेर साहित्य-पान गर्न र त्यहाँको वस्तुस्थिति ज्ञान र सूचनालाई नजिकबाट चियाउन मद्दत गर्दछ । केही कविताहरु कुन सन्दर्भमा रचिएको हो भन्ने जानकारीहरु "फुटनोटु का रुपमा दिइएकाले पाठकलाई ऐतिहासिक ज्ञान र चेतना बृद्धि गर्दै कविताको भाव बुझ्न सहयोग पर् याइएको छ भने पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका बारेमा लेखिएका संक्षिप्त विवरणले रचनाकार र उनीहरुका रचनालाई बुझ्न सरल बनाएको पाइन्छ । यद्यपि सबै कविताहरु कुन सन्दर्भमा लेखिएको हो भन्ने जानकारी प्रदान नगरिएको हुँदा भने रुसी साहित्य र इतिहासबारे अनभिज्ञ पाठकहरुलाई भने कतिपय कविताको अर्थ बुझ्न मुस्किल पर्ने देखिन्छ ।
नेपालमा झण्डै १० प्रतिशत कृति अनुवादबाटै आएको पाइन्छ । अनुवाद यान्त्रिक र तात्कालिक कार्य होइन । यो अतीत र भविष्यसँग जोडिएको हुन्छ । नेपालीमा महाकविले म्याकबेथको अनुवाद गरे । पुष्कर शमशेरले ओथेलोको ऋद्धिबहादुर मल्लले धेरै गरे । अरु पनि गर्दैछन् । ग्रीक साहित्यदेखि हालैका रसियाली हिन्दी चिनियु जर्मन साहित्यहरु पनि नेपालीमा पस्दैछन् । एउटा तीक्ष्ण ऐतिहासिक चेतनाद्वारा निर्देशित भएर मात्रै उत्कृष्ट व्यक्ति र कृतिको छनौट हुन सक्छ । भविष्यका पाठकलाई सम्झेर मात्रै ती कृतिलाई कुनै भाषातिर ओसार्न मन लाग्न । एउटा अनुवादक त्यसो भए केले निर्देशित छ यसको उत्तर छ एउटा तीक्ष्ण ऐतिहासिक चेतनाले । त्यही चेतनाले निर्देशित भएर अनुदित "पुश्किन र त्युत्चेभका कविता"का माध्यमबाट अनुवादक प्रा. डा. जङ्गब चौहानले नेपाली पाठकहरुलाई रुसी स्रष्टाका सिर्जनाहरुसँग परिचय गराएका छन् रुसी आत्माको गहिराइसम्म पुर् याएर रुसी मानिसको चरित्रलाई बुझ्न मद्दत गरेका छन् ।
जीवन धान्न मृगौला बिक्री
पैसा कमाउने सपना लिएर ३ बर्षअघि विदेश जान घरबाट बिदा भएका काभ्रे मेच्छे ५ का गोकुल नेपाली महिना दिन नबित्दै घर फर्किए । भक्तपुर बाँसडोल आफ्नो घर भएको बताउने अर्जुन थापाले कतार लगेर काममा लगाइदिने बाचा गरेपछि ३९ बर्षीय नेपाली उनकै पछि लागेका थिए । तर ३ दिन ३ रातसम्म रेलको यात्रा गराएपछि अर्जनले आफूहरु भारतको कुनै एउटा शहरमा पुगेर अलपत्र परेको बताए । नयाँ ठाउँमा बेखर्ची हुनुपर्दा र भन्नेबित्तिकै काम पनि नपाउँदा घर फर्कने खर्च जुटाउन एउटा मृगौला बेच्ने उपाय पनि अर्जुनले नै निकाले । "घर फर्कने खर्च जुटाउन के
ही सीप नलागेपछि उसको कुरा नमान्नुको विकल्प थिएन । त्यसैले मृगौला बेच्न म सहमत भएँ"- शर्त अनुसार पाउनुपर्ने रकम पनि पूरा नपाएको दुखेसो पोख्दै उनले भने "पछि थाहा भयो अर्जुन त मृगौला दलाल पो रहेछ ।"
गोकुल नेपालीजस्तै धेरै पैसा पाउने आशामा एउटा मृगौला बेच्नेहरुको संख्या कम छैन काभ्रेमा । चार बर्षअघि चाखोलामा बालुवा बोकेर परिवार पाल्ने गरेकी ज्याम्दी ७ की बिजुला परियार दैनिक ४ सय रुपैयाँ कमाउँथिन् । तर दलालको प्रलोभनमा परी एउटा मृगौला बेचेपछि उनी काम गर्न नसक्ने भइन् । अहिले आफू र आफ्नो परिवारको विचल्नी भएको बताउँदै उनी भन्छिन् "पहिला वालुवा बोकेर ज्यान पाल्थें अहिले काम गर्न सक्तिनँ के गरी बाँच्ने ?"
२ लाख रुपैयाँ दिन्छु भनी भारत लगेर नेपाल फर्कंदा ६० हजार रुपैयाँभन्दा दिन्न भन्दै दलालहरुले उल्टै कुटेर पठाएको तितो अनुभव सुनाउँदै जैसीथोक-७ का गंगाबहादुर तामाङ अहिले पछुतो गर्छन् एउटा मृगौला बेच्दा केही हँुदैन भनेर बेचिहाल्यौं तर अहिले जिउ कमजोर भएको छ । "पहिलाको जस्तो काम गर्न नसक्नु र त्यसैका कारण परिवार पाल्न कठीन भएको बताउने धेरैजसो औषधिको रुपमा रक्सी खाने गर्दछन् । मृगौला बेच्दा भएको घाउ दुख्ने गरेको र औषधि किन्ने पैसा नभएको बताउँदै तामाङ भन्छन् "पैसा पनि छैन औषधि कसरी खानु रक्सी खायो घाउ त दुख्न छोड्छ ।"
काभ्रेको होक्से गाउँमा एकै परिवारका चार जनासम्मले मृगौला बेचेका उदाहरण पाइन्छन् । होक्से-५ का कृष्ण ठकुरीसहित उनका छोरा रामकुमार छोरी शान्ता र ज्वाइँ अशोक मगरले समेत मृगौला बेचेका छन् । त्यसो त होक्सेका कृष्ण ठकुरी र तेजबहादुर श्रेष्ठ महादेवस्थानका सुब्बा सापकोटा पाँचखालका राजु अधिकारी र काले बुढाथोकीको मृर्गौला बेचेकै कारण मृत्यु भइसकेको छ ।
काभ्रे जिल्लाका होक्से खरेलथोक कोशीदेखा पाँचखाल महादेवस्थान ज्याम्दी लगायतका गाउँहरुबाट गरी १ सयभन्दा बढीले मृगौला बेचिसकेका छन् । यीमध्ये ५० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी चाहीं होक्सेकै छन् । त्यसो त राष्ट्रिय अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय रुपमै होक्से गाउँ मृगौला बेच्ने गाउँ बैंक अफ् किडनी को रुपमा चिनिन थालेको छ । स्थानीय पलााचोक भगवती असल शासन क्लवका अनुसार विशेषगरी भारतको तमिलनाडु लखनऊ चेन्नइ मद्रास चण्डीगढ लगायतका थाउँमा मृगौला बेच्नेहरुलाई लगिन्छ ।
आर्थिक अवस्था कमजोर भएका काभ्रेको होक्से र आसपासको क्षेत्रका बासिन्दालाई मृर्गौला तस्करीहरुले एउटा मृर्गौला बेच्दा केही हुँदैन भनेर फकाउँने गर्दछन् । ज्यालादारी गरेरै पेट पाल्न सक्ने हुँदा पनि यस क्षेत्रका बासिन्दा मृगौला बेच्न सहमत हुनुको कारण बाध्यता भन्दा बढी प्रलोभन नै भएको देखिन्छ । ६० हजार देखि दुई लाख रुपैयाँ सम्म मृगौला बेचेवापत लिन सक्ने आस्वासन दिने तस्करहरु भने एउटा मृर्गौलाबाट ९ लाख रुपैयाँसम्म प्राप्त गर्दछन् । नेपालको कानुनमा मृर्गौला बेचबिखनमा प्रतिबन्ध लगाइएको भएपनि मृगौला बेचबिखनबिरुद अहिलेसम्म कुनै उजुरी नपरेकाले यस्तो कार्यमा संलग्न हुनेहरुलाई कारवाही हुन नसकेको प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारी नेत्रप्रसाद न्यौपाने बताउँछन् ।
ही सीप नलागेपछि उसको कुरा नमान्नुको विकल्प थिएन । त्यसैले मृगौला बेच्न म सहमत भएँ"- शर्त अनुसार पाउनुपर्ने रकम पनि पूरा नपाएको दुखेसो पोख्दै उनले भने "पछि थाहा भयो अर्जुन त मृगौला दलाल पो रहेछ ।"गोकुल नेपालीजस्तै धेरै पैसा पाउने आशामा एउटा मृगौला बेच्नेहरुको संख्या कम छैन काभ्रेमा । चार बर्षअघि चाखोलामा बालुवा बोकेर परिवार पाल्ने गरेकी ज्याम्दी ७ की बिजुला परियार दैनिक ४ सय रुपैयाँ कमाउँथिन् । तर दलालको प्रलोभनमा परी एउटा मृगौला बेचेपछि उनी काम गर्न नसक्ने भइन् । अहिले आफू र आफ्नो परिवारको विचल्नी भएको बताउँदै उनी भन्छिन् "पहिला वालुवा बोकेर ज्यान पाल्थें अहिले काम गर्न सक्तिनँ के गरी बाँच्ने ?"
२ लाख रुपैयाँ दिन्छु भनी भारत लगेर नेपाल फर्कंदा ६० हजार रुपैयाँभन्दा दिन्न भन्दै दलालहरुले उल्टै कुटेर पठाएको तितो अनुभव सुनाउँदै जैसीथोक-७ का गंगाबहादुर तामाङ अहिले पछुतो गर्छन् एउटा मृगौला बेच्दा केही हँुदैन भनेर बेचिहाल्यौं तर अहिले जिउ कमजोर भएको छ । "पहिलाको जस्तो काम गर्न नसक्नु र त्यसैका कारण परिवार पाल्न कठीन भएको बताउने धेरैजसो औषधिको रुपमा रक्सी खाने गर्दछन् । मृगौला बेच्दा भएको घाउ दुख्ने गरेको र औषधि किन्ने पैसा नभएको बताउँदै तामाङ भन्छन् "पैसा पनि छैन औषधि कसरी खानु रक्सी खायो घाउ त दुख्न छोड्छ ।"
काभ्रेको होक्से गाउँमा एकै परिवारका चार जनासम्मले मृगौला बेचेका उदाहरण पाइन्छन् । होक्से-५ का कृष्ण ठकुरीसहित उनका छोरा रामकुमार छोरी शान्ता र ज्वाइँ अशोक मगरले समेत मृगौला बेचेका छन् । त्यसो त होक्सेका कृष्ण ठकुरी र तेजबहादुर श्रेष्ठ महादेवस्थानका सुब्बा सापकोटा पाँचखालका राजु अधिकारी र काले बुढाथोकीको मृर्गौला बेचेकै कारण मृत्यु भइसकेको छ ।
काभ्रे जिल्लाका होक्से खरेलथोक कोशीदेखा पाँचखाल महादेवस्थान ज्याम्दी लगायतका गाउँहरुबाट गरी १ सयभन्दा बढीले मृगौला बेचिसकेका छन् । यीमध्ये ५० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी चाहीं होक्सेकै छन् । त्यसो त राष्ट्रिय अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय रुपमै होक्से गाउँ मृगौला बेच्ने गाउँ बैंक अफ् किडनी को रुपमा चिनिन थालेको छ । स्थानीय पलााचोक भगवती असल शासन क्लवका अनुसार विशेषगरी भारतको तमिलनाडु लखनऊ चेन्नइ मद्रास चण्डीगढ लगायतका थाउँमा मृगौला बेच्नेहरुलाई लगिन्छ ।
आर्थिक अवस्था कमजोर भएका काभ्रेको होक्से र आसपासको क्षेत्रका बासिन्दालाई मृर्गौला तस्करीहरुले एउटा मृर्गौला बेच्दा केही हुँदैन भनेर फकाउँने गर्दछन् । ज्यालादारी गरेरै पेट पाल्न सक्ने हुँदा पनि यस क्षेत्रका बासिन्दा मृगौला बेच्न सहमत हुनुको कारण बाध्यता भन्दा बढी प्रलोभन नै भएको देखिन्छ । ६० हजार देखि दुई लाख रुपैयाँ सम्म मृगौला बेचेवापत लिन सक्ने आस्वासन दिने तस्करहरु भने एउटा मृर्गौलाबाट ९ लाख रुपैयाँसम्म प्राप्त गर्दछन् । नेपालको कानुनमा मृर्गौला बेचबिखनमा प्रतिबन्ध लगाइएको भएपनि मृगौला बेचबिखनबिरुद अहिलेसम्म कुनै उजुरी नपरेकाले यस्तो कार्यमा संलग्न हुनेहरुलाई कारवाही हुन नसकेको प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारी नेत्रप्रसाद न्यौपाने बताउँछन् ।
Media System in the United States and North America
Introduction
The media system of the United States consists of different types of communications media, i.e. television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, books, Internet and several different new media (mobile phones, Ipod, etc). The U.S. also has a strong music industry. American media conglomerates tend to be leading global players, generating large profits as well as large criticism in many parts of the world. Media system of the United States is taken as a free-market system. aThe deregulation and convergence are under way, leading to mega-mergers, further concentration of media ownership, and the emergence of multinational media conglomerates. Critics allege that localism, local news and other content at the community level, media spending and coverage of news, and diversity of ownership and views have suffered as a result of these processes of media concentration.
Some people allege that the success of such companies may be due to certain policies of the American federal government, though it may be just as likely that the media field is prone to natural monopolies.
The US Politics
The American lifestyle, with its abundance and opportunities, with its high level of material well-being and varied amusement, is made possible by the political system. The constitutional guarantees of liberty give Americans freedom from government interference in their personal lives and, ironically, make it possible for Americans to ignore politics. The Constitution sets up a federal system of government by dividing powers between the national, state and local governments.
Two characteristics of this three-tier system of American government are fundamental. First, citizens elect officials to serve in the national, state and local governments. The authority of each level rests with the people.
Second, each level of government raises money through taxation from the citizens living in the area it serves. Unless each level of government can raise its own fiscal resources, it cannot act independently.
The idea of separating powers among the various elements of government was designed to restrict governmental power and prevent its abuse. Wherever possible, the Founding Fathers built a system of "checks and balances" into the Constitution so that no one part of the government could supplant the other.
Constitutional Guarantees
Freedom of the press in the United States rests on a firm constitutional bulwark. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1791, states: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for redress of grievances." When the First Amendment was written, the federal government was relatively weak but greatly feared by many members of the new United States. The First Amendment, and the other nine amendments that comprise the Bill of Rights, is now generally construed as being intended to provide citizens with specific protections against an enhancement of power by the federal government. Most state governments had their own Bills of Rights at the time the Constitution was written, and many had stronger protections than the new federal constitution provided.
The Cultural Politics of News: The contemporary crisis in journalism can be traced to an earlier period when commercial interests first overshadowed the democratic aspirations enshrined in the free press clause of the US constitution. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the newspaper industry came under withering attack from a broad cross-section of American society. Not unlike today, charges of fear and favor in the newsroom, crass commercialism, and scandalous content were common. To deflect this criticism, newspaper publishers launched a massive public relations campaign designed to assure the public – and, significantly, would-be regulators – that journalism reform was at hand.
Free-Market System
The US mass media market system is cyclical, with people at the centre. People have wants, which they take to the three types of markets in the system: Consumer, advertising space and time, and ideas to help society function properly. The media companies observe the demand and supply content to the three markets to satisfy the wants and needs. At the same time people are exercising their demand, they also act as sources of information for the media organizations. This mass media system is not isolated from the rest of the world. It serves the demand from other countries by sending content to them. At the same time, other countries supply content to the US system based on demand from that system.
Media Ownership: All of the American broadcast media and most of the print media as well, are owned primarily by wealthy individuals. Direct ties to the biggest of big businesses are almost unbelievably extensive and, we believe, these ties cannot help but seriously bias and compromise news coverage. Moreover, the media empires are, first and foremost, profit-making corporations that conduct themselves like other corporations when it comes to corrupting American politics. That is, the parent corporations of many make so-called "campaign contributions" and also act against the public interest in other ways. As big winners in the corruption game, they show no signs of serious interest in political reform. At the heart of media pseudo liberalism is a shallow but highly serviceable relativistic ethic. It is said "serviceable" because the fundamental corporate ethical premise, "if it's profitable it's good," is fully compatible. In some ways, the personification of this "liberalism" is Howard Stern, who represents nothing in the end but cynical profiteering. The similarly corrupt music industry thinks nothing of merchandising utterly debased music to children. This form of "liberalism" nicely advances the corporate profit agenda.
Media Regulation and control: The mass media of the US enjoy greater freedom than those of any other countries. It's constitution has provided it huge freedom that even registration is not required for the publication of any newspapers. However, The American mainstream media system continues to be the perfect tool for those who control the empire. Many of the media are controlled by large for-profit corporations who reap revenue from advertising, subscriptions, and sale of copyrighted material.
Government Control of the Press: There is no direct or indirect government control over the newspaper press through subsidies, licensing, labor policies, licenses for printing, or any other official means. The broadcast media, of course, operate under an entirely different set of regulations, given their relationship with the FCC. The controls that government places on the press tend to be in the form of tax laws, workers-rights laws, and occupational safety laws administered by federal and state agencies and to which all businesses operating in a given area are subject.
Censorship: There is no official means for the government to censor newspapers, magazines, broadcast stations or other media in the United States. There is no federal censorship agency, and no way for the government to effectively enjoin a newspaper or magazine from publishing anything it wants to publish.
Registration and Licensing of Journalists—Print Media: Journalists in the United States are generally free from requirements that they be either registered or licensed to do their jobs, and newspapers, magazines, and Internet sites can publish freely at any time without any sort of license or official recognition. The closest that newspaper journalists come to registration is in special situations, such as when covering campaigns, the White House, or legislatures, sporting events, or in other situations where security or space restrict access to the subject of coverage. In those situations, press members are issued "credentials" from any one of a variety of bodies, which they must present to gain access. Specific issues with licensing of broadcast stations and broadcast journalists are dealt within the section State Regulation of Broadcast Media.
Broadcasting Licenses and Regulations
Broadcast stations, both TV and radio, operate under somewhat different rules than print organizations. Although broadcast journalists generally operate under the same rules as print journalists when reporting on stories, the stations they work for operate under licenses from the Federal Communications Commission. The FCC, established by the Communications Act of 1934, has jurisdiction over approximately one-half of the broadcast spectrum, which is considered public, collective property. (The other half is reserved for federal government uses; military and civilian agencies take up this portion.) The FCC has specific and limited powers to regulate its portion of the spectrum. The FCC is prohibited from considering questions of competition, market share, mergers, antitrust issues, truth or falsity of advertising materials, and civil cases between broadcasters.
Education and Training
Most aspiring journalists enter some sort of collegiate journalism education program. While the most distinguished journalism schools, like Missouri, Columbia, Northwestern University, and the University of Texas, operate separate journalism schools, many future journalists major in schools of communications or in media studies.
The University of Missouri founded the world's first permanent school of journalism in 1908, after nearly thirty years of agitation from the Missouri Press Association. Students in the journalism sequence produced the weekly University Missourian , which survives today as the daily Columbia Missourian , in between taking classes on reporting, editing, and design, as well as the regular university sequence. The Missourian , which is owned by the Missouri Press Foundation, is operated wholly by the school's students, with faculty members serving as editors and managers. Over time, the university and Missouri Press Foundation added a radio station and later a television station to their holdings. Today, KBIAFM and KOMU are NPR and NBC affiliates and operate on the same basis as the Missourian , with students producing and editing content and faculty managing operations. The "Missouri method," which combines hands-on education with a rigorous schedule of classes, has been widely copied.
Attitude towards Foreign Media
Foreign media representatives in the United States are generally treated in the same way as domestic media representatives. Foreign journalists are not subject to any special visa restrictions or restricted in sending news back to their home countries in the form of wires, cables, e-mail, satellite communications and the like. There are no laws specifically prohibiting foreign investment in the U.S. media, except in broadcasting, where the FCC has placed specific ownership rules on broadcast licenses. Foreign companies are still not significant players in the domestic media market, except in certain sectors of the book publishing industry. The United States remains opposed to the UNESCO Declaration of 1978, which was seen at the time by the United States as a Communist-led effort on the part of third-world countries to overthrow Western dominance of the media marketplace by imposing state-run and transnational news organizations.
State of Mass Media in the USA
Number of Television Stations: 1,500
Number of Television Sets: 219,000,000
Television Sets per 1,000: 787.6
Number of Cable Subscribers: 70,991,360
Cable Subscribers per 1,000: 252.1
Number of Satellite Subscribers: 16,000,000
Satellite Subscribers per 1,000: 57.5
Number of Radio Stations: 10,322
Number of Radio Receivers: 575,000,000
Radio Receivers per 1,000: 2,067.9
Number of Individuals with Computers: 161,000,000
Computers per 1,000: 579.0
Number of Individuals with Internet Access: 95,354,000
Internet Access per 1,000: 342.9
Television
Television in the United States is regulated, along with radio, by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). There are several thousand local stations, of which many belong to the seven nationwide commercial broadcast networks. Traditionally, there were three: NBC, ABC, and CBS. The four newer networks are Fox, The CW, MyNetworkTV and ION Television, along with various smaller services. Besides, there is a noncommercial public television network - PBS, which is partially subsidized by the federal government. Public access television are open cable channels allowing for citizen produced programming to appear on local cable networks. Hispanic terrestrial networks like Univision, Telemundo, Telefutura, and countless others have also sprung into popularity and, in Hispanic markets, occasionally beat the major English-speaking networks in the ratings.
Besides the "free" over-the-air television networks, there are also many networks which can be received on a television only after arranging for a subscription to a cable or digital satellite service. Examples of such television networks are HBO and CNN.
The FCC is currently orchestrating a difficult nationwide transition from the old analog television standard, NTSC, to the new digital standard, ATSC. As of today, all analog television broadcasts in the U.S. were slated to be shut off by 2009.
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld restrictions on the content of broadcast media. The usual justifications are the scarcity of usable electromagnetic spectrum and the fact that unlike with books or magazines, it is difficult to provide advance warning of the nature of program content (if someone tunes in during the middle of the program).
Radio
American radio broadcasts in two bands: FM and AM. Some stations are only talk radio — featuring interviews and discussions — while music radio stations broadcast one particular type of music: Top 40, hip-hop, country, etc. Radio broadcast companies have become increasingly consolidated in recent years. National Public Radio is the nation's primary public radio network, but most radio stations are commercial and profit-oriented.
Talk radio as a political medium has also exploded in popularity during the 1990s, due to the 1987 repeal of the FCC Fairness Doctrine, which meant that stations no longer had to "balance" their day by programming alternative points of view.
The FCC has recently approved a transition to digital radio technology which allows both FM and AM stations to "piggyback" digital data on top of their existing analog broadcasts. When the transition is complete at some point in the far future, the analog broadcasts will be replaced with true high-quality digital broadcasts.
A new form of radio that is gaining popularity is satellite radio. The two biggest subscriptions based radio services are Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio, which have recently both merged together to form Sirius XM Radio. Unlike terrestrial radio music channels are commercial free and other channels feature very minimal commercials. Satellite Radio also is not regulated by the FCC.
Newspapers
Newspapers have declined in their influence and penetration into American households over the years. The U.S. does not have a national paper per se, although the influential dailies the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal are sold in most U.S. cities. The Times has a liberal stance, while the Journal is moderate-right and is strongly pro-business.
Although the Times' primary audience has always been the people of New York City, the New York Times has gradually become the dominant national "newspaper of record." Apart from its daily nationwide distribution, the term means that back issues are archived on microfilm by every decent-sized public library in the nation, and the Times' articles are often cited by both historians and judges as evidence that a major historical event occurred on a certain date. The Los Angeles Times and the Wall Street Journal are also newspapers of record to a lesser extent. Although USA Today has tried to establish itself as a national paper, it has been widely derided by the academic world as the "McPaper" and is not subscribed to (let alone archived) by most libraries.
Apart from the newspapers just mentioned, all major metropolitan areas have their own local newspapers. Typically, a metropolitan area will support at most one or two major newspapers, with many smaller publications targeted towards particular audiences. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage.
With a very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families.
Most general-purpose newspapers are either being printed one time a week, usually on Thursday or Friday, or are printed daily. Weekly newspapers tend to have much smaller circulation and are more prevalent in rural communities or small towns. Major cities often have "alternative weeklies" to complement the mainstream daily paper(s), for example, New York City's Village Voice or Los Angeles' L.A. Weekly, to name two of the most well-known. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries and papers for local ethnic and social groups.
Probably due to competition from other media, the number of daily newspapers in the U.S. has declined over the past half-century, according to Editor & Publisher, the trade journal of American newspapers. In particular, the number of evening newspapers has fallen by almost one-half since 1970, while the number of morning editions and Sunday editions has grown.
For comparison, in 1950, there were 1,772 daily papers (and 1,450 — or about 70 percent — of them were evening papers) while in 2000, there were 1,480 daily papers (and 766--or about half--of them were evening papers.)
The primary source of newspaper income is advertising — in the form of "classifieds" or inserted advertising circulars — rather than circulation income. However, since the late 1990s, this revenue source has been directly challenged by Web sites like eBay (for sales of secondhand items), Monster.com (jobs), and Craigslist (everything).
The largest newspapers (by circulation) in the United States are USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times.
Magazines
The United States has a large magazine industry with hundreds of magazines serving almost every interest, as can be determined by glancing at any newsstand in any large American city. Most magazines are owned by one of the large media conglomerates or by one of their smaller regional brethren.
The U.S. has three leading weekly newsmagazines: TIME, Newsweek and U.S. News. Time and Newsweek are center-left while U.S. News tends to be center-right, although all three (in theory, at least) strive to provide objective news reporting and limit personal bias to the opinion pages. Time is well-known for naming a "person of the year" each year, while U.S. News publishes annual ratings of American colleges and universities.
The U.S. also has over a dozen major political magazines (the exact number is debatable, of course), serving every part of the political spectrum from left to right.
Finally, besides the hundreds of specialized magazines that serve the diverse interests and hobbies of the American people, there are also dozens of magazines published by professional organizations for their members, such as Communications of the ACM (for computer science specialists) and the ABA Journal (for lawyers).
Internet
The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free, and charge for access to the rest. Other organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed. It is possible that the latter type obtain more influence, as they are true to the spirit of freedom of information by virtue of making it free. Anyone who has followed external links only to be confronted with a pay to view banner, might attest that the reputations of organizations that charge is not enhanced by their charging policy, particularly when the same information is available from sources that don't charge.
The Internet, by means of making available such constantly growing news archives, is, in effect, writing our history as it happens, at a level of detail never before known. While proprietary archives are slowly exposed to the public after many decades, organizations that maintain immediately-updating resources have more control over what will be remembered by the general public in the near future.
Popular Media form in U.S.A
Since the early twentieth century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, California. Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar and Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited in critics' polls as the greatest film of all time. American screen actors like John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe have become iconic figures, while producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. The major film studios of Hollywood are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies in the world, such as Star Wars (1977) and Titanic (1997), and the products of Hollywood today dominate the global film industry.
Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world, and the average time spent in front of the screen continues to rise, hitting five hours a day in 2006. The four major broadcast networks are all commercial entities. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercialized, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day. Aside from web portals and web search engines, the most popular websites are eBay, My Space, Amazon.com, The New York Times, and Apple. Twelve million Americans have their personal blog.
The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the twentieth century. Country music, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll emerged between the 1920s and 1950s. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's greatest songwriters and James Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations include hip hop and house music. American pop stars such as Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson (Died this year), and Madonna have become global celebrities.
Among the above mentioned forms of mass media, the people of United States seem to use television and the motion picture the most. The circulation of newspapers has also decreased due to the vast accessibility of the internet. Via internet we can get the news as soon as it happens. News is updated every now and then so that the people get the factual news rather then the made up news. Radio also happens to be the most widely used form of mass media in the United States. They listen to the various musical programs which are aired in the radio as they have always been attracted to it.
North American Economy
North America comprises 24 nations prime among them being United States of America. This region experienced considerable economic growth from 1920s. However this prosperity was short lived as it entered phase of Great Depression in October 1929. It took World War II to bring to an end of this depression phase via a rise in demand for war goods. NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) post 1989 augmented volume of trade in this region. North American economy totaled a GDP of US $15.560 trillion in 2006. In 2004, this region possessed an estimated population of 440,600,000.
Media in Canada
North & Central America
Number of Daily Newspapers : 104
Total Circulation : 5,167,000
Circulation per 1,000 : 206
Total Newspaper Ad Receipts : 2,995 (Canadian millions)$
Number of Television Stations : 80
Number of Television Sets : 21,500,000
Television Sets per 1,000 : 680.5
Number of Cable Subscribers : 7,989,520
Cable Subscribers per 1,000 : 259.4
Number of Satellite Subscribers : 968,000
Satellite Subscribers per 1,000 : 30.6
Number of Radio Stations : 594
Number of Radio Receivers : 32,300,000
Radio Receivers per 1,000 : 1,022.4
Computers per 1,000 : 379.8
Internet Access per 1,000 : 402
Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output — particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines — is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. Television, magazines, and newspapers are primarily for-profit corporations based on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. Nevertheless, both the television broadcasting and publications sectors require a number of government interventions to remain profitable, ranging from regulation that bars foreign companies in the broadcasting industry to tax laws that limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.
In the broadcasting sector, Canada has a government-funded broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation/Société Radio-Canada, which operates radio and TV networks in English and French. As well, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as Ontario's TV Ontario and Quebec's Télé-Québec. Given Canada's small market and its position next to the dominant producer of feature films, the Canadian film industry requires substantial assistance from the government. In the 2000s, about half of the budget of a typical Canadian film came from various federal and provincial government sources.
Media in Mexico
Number of Television Stations : 236
Number of Television Sets : 25,600,000
Television Sets per 1,000 : 251.3
Number of Cable Subscribers : 2,263,800
Cable Subscribers per 1,000 : 23.1
Number of Satellite Subscribers : 668,000
Satellite Subscribers per 1,000 : 6.6
Number of Radio Stations : 1378
Number of Radio Receivers : 31,000,000
Radio Receivers per 1,000 : 304.3
Number of Individuals with Computers : 5,000,000
Computers per 1,000 : 49.1
Number of Individuals with Internet Access : 2,712,000
Internet Access per 1,000 : 26.6
Historically, the Mexican press has been compromised by violence and criminal activity. Yet press laws in the twentieth century and governmental changes in the early 2000s suggested reasons to hope for the continued evolution of an increasingly professional press. With the additional help of NAFTA, these changes bode well for the future of the Mexican media. The passage in 2002 of a freedom of information act indicated that journalists and others would in the early twenty-first century be able to obtain government documents denied to them for generations. Then, too, increasing numbers of well-educated, professional journalists entering the profession would improve it. As traditional print sources in Mexico migrate to electronic services along with new entrants such as MexConnect, media in Mexico are bound to find their place in the global market.
Mexico's free market economy with its mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture was throughout the last quarter of the twentieth century increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico fell from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 2000. The Zedillo administration (1994-2000) privatized and expanded competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports.
A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996-2000. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth in 2000, accompanied by increased employment and higher real wages. Entering the twenty-first century, Mexico still needed to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Trade with the United States and Canada had tripled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Moreover, in 2000, Mexico completed free trade agreements with the European Union (EU), Israel, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, and it sought additional trade agreements with other countries in Latin America and Asia to lessen its dependence on the United States.
Conclusion:
The Media systems in most of the countries of North America enjoy freedom. Democracy has provided them to the license to expand to large business corporations and thus these media strongly stimulate the process of globalization. However, the United States being the most dominating and powerful country affects not only its neighboring countries but also impose its culture and trade to the third world countries. The American mainstream media system is a very powerful and dangerous appendage of a system that does not give a damn about the advancement of the rest of humanity. Its true function is to project the worldview and culture of the imperial system, of which it is an integral component. The criminal minded mainstream media have no interest in putting domestic and world events in their proper context. Keeping the public as dumbed down as possible keeps their corporate clients happy and their political partners in power. After all, if most Americans truly knew that their country’s government was at the root of most of the nation’s international disputes, they actually might try to rise up and do something about it.
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